David Robson

David Robson is an award-winning playwright whose work for the stage has been hailed as "compelling," "forceful," and "gut-wrenching" by the New York Times, and "an important contribution to contemporary theater" by the Philadelphia Inquirer.

Plays include LIBERTINE, FREUD UND FREUD, MULEHEADED (Barrymore Recommended), WITHOUT CONSENT, BLUES IN MY SOUL: THE LEGEND AND LEGACY OF LONNIE JOHNSON, BIRTHRIGHT (PlayPenn Semi-finalist), AFTER BIRTH OF A NATION (Best Playwright Award, Broadway World), PRICELESS, PLAYING THE ASSASSIN (Philadelphia Critics' Award Nomination for Best New Play), PLAYING LENI (co-written with John Stanton), A FEW SMALL REPAIRS, MAN MEASURES MAN (Barrymore Nomination), AFTER DENMARK, and OUT OF PLACE (Julie Harris Playwriting Award Runner-Up).

His work has been seen...

David Robson is an award-winning playwright whose work for the stage has been hailed as "compelling," "forceful," and "gut-wrenching" by the New York Times, and "an important contribution to contemporary theater" by the Philadelphia Inquirer.

Plays include LIBERTINE, FREUD UND FREUD, MULEHEADED (Barrymore Recommended), WITHOUT CONSENT, BLUES IN MY SOUL: THE LEGEND AND LEGACY OF LONNIE JOHNSON, BIRTHRIGHT (PlayPenn Semi-finalist), AFTER BIRTH OF A NATION (Best Playwright Award, Broadway World), PRICELESS, PLAYING THE ASSASSIN (Philadelphia Critics' Award Nomination for Best New Play), PLAYING LENI (co-written with John Stanton), A FEW SMALL REPAIRS, MAN MEASURES MAN (Barrymore Nomination), AFTER DENMARK, and OUT OF PLACE (Julie Harris Playwriting Award Runner-Up).

His work has been seen at Penguin Rep, TheaterWorks Hartford, Delaware Theatre Company, InterAct Theatre Company, Theatre Exile, Passage Theatre, Act II Playhouse, Blank Theatre Company, Idiopathic Ridiculopathy Consortium, Bated Breath Theatre, Lark, White Pines Productions, Great Plains Theatre Conference, Last Frontier Theatre Conference, New Theatre, Madhouse Theater, Yellow Taxi Productions, City Theater Company, and Theater Catalyst, among others.

He was recently named Delaware's Best Playwright, and is the recipient of the Hotel Obligado Audience Choice Award for New Work and two playwriting fellowships and three grants from the Delaware Division of the Arts.

Robson's plays and monologues are published by Smith and Kraus, Next Stage Press, and Original Works Publishing. He is a member of the Dramatists’ Guild, the Playwrights' Center, and a former playwright in residence at InterAct Theatre Company, Penguin Rep, TheaterWorks Hartford, and the Lark in New York City.

He is also the author of more than 20 books for young adults, including Shakespeare's Globe Theater, The Murder of Emmett Till, and The Black Arts Movement. He holds an MFA in creative writing from Goddard College, an MS in English Education from St. Joseph's University, and a BA in Communications from Temple University.

He is a professor of English at Delaware County Community College in Media, Pennsylvania, where he received the Gould Award for Teaching Excellence in 2010.

Scripts

A Few Small Repairs

by David Robson

Synopsis

Once two of the most glamorous members of America's privileged class now facing possible eviction from their Newport mansion by the Board of Health, "Big" and "Little" Alice protect, torment, lie and cling to each other. Loosely based on the true, bizarre life of mother and daughter Big and Little Edie Beale, this dark comedy lives somewhere between the longings, loves and delusions of The Three Sisters and...

Once two of the most glamorous members of America's privileged class now facing possible eviction from their Newport mansion by the Board of Health, "Big" and "Little" Alice protect, torment, lie and cling to each other. Loosely based on the true, bizarre life of mother and daughter Big and Little Edie Beale, this dark comedy lives somewhere between the longings, loves and delusions of The Three Sisters and Sunset Boulevard.

A Necessary End

by David Robson

Synopsis

When a college professor and his student, a military veteran, meet, conflicts arise over issues of purpose, power, and politics.

When a college professor and his student, a military veteran, meet, conflicts arise over issues of purpose, power, and politics.

After Birth of a Nation

by David Robson

Synopsis

On the night of the first-ever White House movie screening, First Daughter Margaret Wilson must find a way to break with her past and become her own woman. Yet at the showing of the infamous epic The Birth of a Nation she is forced to fend off advances from a young minister, confront her own racial intolerance, and somehow live up to her duty to her father and to her country without completely losing her mind...

On the night of the first-ever White House movie screening, First Daughter Margaret Wilson must find a way to break with her past and become her own woman. Yet at the showing of the infamous epic The Birth of a Nation she is forced to fend off advances from a young minister, confront her own racial intolerance, and somehow live up to her duty to her father and to her country without completely losing her mind. After Birth of a Nation is a farcical sendup of politics, piety, racism, and our fractured American experiment.

After Denmark

by David Robson

Synopsis

Fresh off professional triumph, Lyndon Sykes receives a cryptic letter whispering that his family tree hides a dangerous root—one tied to Denmark Vesey, the rebel who planned to burn Charleston to the ground. As Lyndon follows the trail south, the mystery of his ancestry exposes deeper questions of identity, privilege, and the ghosts that still rule America’s soil.

Fresh off professional triumph, Lyndon Sykes receives a cryptic letter whispering that his family tree hides a dangerous root—one tied to Denmark Vesey, the rebel who planned to burn Charleston to the ground. As Lyndon follows the trail south, the mystery of his ancestry exposes deeper questions of identity, privilege, and the ghosts that still rule America’s soil.

American Child

by David Robson

Synopsis

Despite his brilliant design for a capital city along the Potomac River, French immigrant Peter L’Enfant fights an uphill battle to build Washington, DC. Meanwhile, a century later, a distraught son’s discovery may hold the key to finally raising the dormant city and restoring the designer’s reputation. In the vein of Hamilton, American Child takes an intimate look at the courage and conflict that forged a new...

Despite his brilliant design for a capital city along the Potomac River, French immigrant Peter L’Enfant fights an uphill battle to build Washington, DC. Meanwhile, a century later, a distraught son’s discovery may hold the key to finally raising the dormant city and restoring the designer’s reputation. In the vein of Hamilton, American Child takes an intimate look at the courage and conflict that forged a new nation and created one of its greatest cities.  

Ball N' Chain: Big Mama Thornton Plays Monterey (Play with Music)

by David Robson

Synopsis

You may know the King of Rock and Roll, but what about its queen? Hound Dog? Big Mama Thornton sang it first. Before Janis and Aretha, Big Mama blew the roof off of joints from Boston to Paris and everywhere in between. In BALL N' CHAIN, the legendary Big Mama Thornton lays it down and lights it up, singing the blues, telling stories, and providing an intimate look at the life of one of rock and roll's pioneers.

You may know the King of Rock and Roll, but what about its queen? Hound Dog? Big Mama Thornton sang it first. Before Janis and Aretha, Big Mama blew the roof off of joints from Boston to Paris and everywhere in between. In BALL N' CHAIN, the legendary Big Mama Thornton lays it down and lights it up, singing the blues, telling stories, and providing an intimate look at the life of one of rock and roll's pioneers.

Birthright

by David Robson

Synopsis

Abortion has been outlawed; law-breakers can be imprisoned, or worse, for the crime of terminating a pregnancy. One desperate woman employs a mysterious young doctor who has agreed to perform the procedure at-home, thereby threatening both of their lives and forcing them to confront the darkest parts of the new American political landscape.

Abortion has been outlawed; law-breakers can be imprisoned, or worse, for the crime of terminating a pregnancy. One desperate woman employs a mysterious young doctor who has agreed to perform the procedure at-home, thereby threatening both of their lives and forcing them to confront the darkest parts of the new American political landscape.

Blues in My Soul: The Legend and Legacy of Lonnie Johnson (Play with Music)*

by David Robson

Synopsis

It's 1959. Chris, a local DJ, gets word that legendary jazz and blues musician Lonnie Johnson is working a low-wage job at a Philly hotel, forgotten. Once found, Lonnie, an early guitar hero who influenced the likes of Bob Dylan, Elvis Presley, T-Bone Walker, Django Reinhardt, Charlie Christian, B.B. King, and Eric Clapton, is reluctant to return to an industry that exploited and segregated his work before...

It's 1959. Chris, a local DJ, gets word that legendary jazz and blues musician Lonnie Johnson is working a low-wage job at a Philly hotel, forgotten. Once found, Lonnie, an early guitar hero who influenced the likes of Bob Dylan, Elvis Presley, T-Bone Walker, Django Reinhardt, Charlie Christian, B.B. King, and Eric Clapton, is reluctant to return to an industry that exploited and segregated his work before casting him aside. As the two men meet, conflicts arise, forcing each to reconcile issues of authenticity, injustice, and legacy. Based on a true story, Blues in My Soul is a celebration of an unsung American legend and the music that inspired generations. *Name, Image and Music of Lonnie Johnson used by permission
from the Estate of Lonnie Johnson

Clay Warrior

by David Robson

Synopsis

While a child sex abuse scandal swirls around one of his former employees, a legendary college football coach fights accusations that he didn’t do enough to stop the crimes from taking place. Terminally ill and surrounded by his family, the coach must find a way to save his reputation and that of the university he helped build, while also coming to terms with his failures as a husband, a father, and role model...

While a child sex abuse scandal swirls around one of his former employees, a legendary college football coach fights accusations that he didn’t do enough to stop the crimes from taking place. Terminally ill and surrounded by his family, the coach must find a way to save his reputation and that of the university he helped build, while also coming to terms with his failures as a husband, a father, and role model before it’s too late.

Comfort and Joy

by David Robson

Synopsis

Lily is on the run in 1970s London. Confused, desperate, and unsure of herself, she breaks into the home of best-selling author Alex Comfort, whose Joy of Sex inspired a generation to embrace unbridled pleasure, seeking advice on love and intimacy. When her boyfriend Jack shows up, Lily is compelled to confront issues of selfhood and independence, and choose between what's expected of her and what she really...

Lily is on the run in 1970s London. Confused, desperate, and unsure of herself, she breaks into the home of best-selling author Alex Comfort, whose Joy of Sex inspired a generation to embrace unbridled pleasure, seeking advice on love and intimacy. When her boyfriend Jack shows up, Lily is compelled to confront issues of selfhood and independence, and choose between what's expected of her and what she really wants out of life.

Death of America

by David Robson

Synopsis

Two friends debate the current state of the world before improvising a weird and wacky drama in a local bar.

Two friends debate the current state of the world before improvising a weird and wacky drama in a local bar.

Desert Light

by David Robson

Synopsis

In the final years of her life, a nearly blind Georgia O’Keeffe forms an unexpected bond with a young handyman, Juan Hamilton, stirring tension with her longtime agent, Doris Bry. As questions of legacy, trust, and independence surface, the three grapple with control, companionship, and what it means to honor a life in art. Set against the stark beauty of the New Mexico desert, Desert Light is a powerful story...

In the final years of her life, a nearly blind Georgia O’Keeffe forms an unexpected bond with a young handyman, Juan Hamilton, stirring tension with her longtime agent, Doris Bry. As questions of legacy, trust, and independence surface, the three grapple with control, companionship, and what it means to honor a life in art. Set against the stark beauty of the New Mexico desert, Desert Light is a powerful story of aging, creativity, and letting go.

Drummer: The Darkness and Genius of Jim Gordon (Play with Music)

by David Robson

Synopsis

Jim Gordon was music’s golden child, playing drums alongside many of the greatest artists of the 1960s and 70s, including Eric Clapton, John Lennon, the Everly Brothers, Ike and Tina Turner, the Beach Boys, Harry Nilsson, Carly Simon, George Harrison, and Steely Dan. But on a calm summer night in 1983, after decades of hearing voices, Gordon committed a ghastly crime that shocked the music world and destroyed...

Jim Gordon was music’s golden child, playing drums alongside many of the greatest artists of the 1960s and 70s, including Eric Clapton, John Lennon, the Everly Brothers, Ike and Tina Turner, the Beach Boys, Harry Nilsson, Carly Simon, George Harrison, and Steely Dan. But on a calm summer night in 1983, after decades of hearing voices, Gordon committed a ghastly crime that shocked the music world and destroyed one of rock’s most storied careers. Based on a true story, Drummer is an electrifying journey through some of the best music ever created and into the mind of the troubled but legendary musician who helped make it possible.

Ed Rex

by David Robson

Synopsis

In this comic riff on Oedipus Rex, a powerful CEO must save his business while grappling with his dark and twisted past.

In this comic riff on Oedipus Rex, a powerful CEO must save his business while grappling with his dark and twisted past.

Freud und Freud

by David Robson

Synopsis

In 1930s Vienna, ten-year-old Sophie begins weekly visits to her grandfather Sigmund Freud's study. Initially awkward encounters between the distracted psychoanalyst and his polite but troubled granddaughter evolve into genuine intellectual sparring as Sophie matures and Nazi influence spreads through Austria. When the Gestapo finally arrives at Berggasse 19, Sophie faces an impossible choice: escape to safety...

In 1930s Vienna, ten-year-old Sophie begins weekly visits to her grandfather Sigmund Freud's study. Initially awkward encounters between the distracted psychoanalyst and his polite but troubled granddaughter evolve into genuine intellectual sparring as Sophie matures and Nazi influence spreads through Austria. When the Gestapo finally arrives at Berggasse 19, Sophie faces an impossible choice: escape to safety in London with her grandfather or remain with her mother in increasingly dangerous Europe. Set against the backdrop of fascism's rise, the play explores the competing claims of family loyalty, intellectual legacy, and survival.

Goons

by David Robson

Synopsis

This interview from Hell includes a mysterious box, a spatula, and a couple of burly goons.

This interview from Hell includes a mysterious box, a spatula, and a couple of burly goons.

Hammer of God

by David Robson

Synopsis

On trial for heresy, Paul the Apostle defends his transformation from persecutor to prophet. Addressing the crowd—and us—he recounts his past: the violence he committed in God's name, a murdered child, and a blinding vision on the road to Damascus that changed everything. But as a murdered boy's ghost interrupts Paul's testimony, we're forced to ask: Is Paul divinely chosen or catastrophically self-deceived...

On trial for heresy, Paul the Apostle defends his transformation from persecutor to prophet. Addressing the crowd—and us—he recounts his past: the violence he committed in God's name, a murdered child, and a blinding vision on the road to Damascus that changed everything. But as a murdered boy's ghost interrupts Paul's testimony, we're forced to ask: Is Paul divinely chosen or catastrophically self-deceived? Hammer of God explores the razor's edge between faith and delusion, and how personal trauma becomes religious doctrine.

Killing Neil LaBute

by David Robson

Synopsis

A fledgling writer posts a review of provocateur playwright Neil LaBute´s work, and before long a tit-for-tat turns ugly.

A fledgling writer posts a review of provocateur playwright Neil LaBute´s work, and before long a tit-for-tat turns ugly.

Libertine

by David Robson

Synopsis

Charles, a publisher, arrives at his oldest friend's cottage with groceries and a mission: convince the exiled author Patrice to return to France and face the consequences of his past. But over one devastating afternoon, the moral ground shifts and old loyalties unravel as buried truths surface. Before long the question becomes: Who is the true libertine—the one who takes, or the one who offers up what should be...

Charles, a publisher, arrives at his oldest friend's cottage with groceries and a mission: convince the exiled author Patrice to return to France and face the consequences of his past. But over one devastating afternoon, the moral ground shifts and old loyalties unravel as buried truths surface. Before long the question becomes: Who is the true libertine—the one who takes, or the one who offers up what should be protected?

The Maids

by David Robson

Synopsis

A new adaptation of Genet's classic absurdist play follows sisters Solange and Claire, housemaids who devise intricate sadomasochistic rituals in which they imagine murdering their spoiled and condescending mistress. The two take turns portraying both sides of the dark and twisted power divide, leading to obsession, jealousy, and shocking violence. This new version posits the siblings as mature women, thereby...

A new adaptation of Genet's classic absurdist play follows sisters Solange and Claire, housemaids who devise intricate sadomasochistic rituals in which they imagine murdering their spoiled and condescending mistress. The two take turns portraying both sides of the dark and twisted power divide, leading to obsession, jealousy, and shocking violence. This new version posits the siblings as mature women, thereby emphasizing festering generational resentments.

Man Measures Man

by David Robson

Synopsis

Two American doctors travel to a war zone to offer their services to desperate refugees. Into the chaos of the medical camp, a mysterious boy arrives, forcing the doctors to re-examine their actions and the personal ethics that guide them.

Two American doctors travel to a war zone to offer their services to desperate refugees. Into the chaos of the medical camp, a mysterious boy arrives, forcing the doctors to re-examine their actions and the personal ethics that guide them.

Mel and Mee

by David Robson

Synopsis

What really happened the night actor Mel Gibson got arrested?

What really happened the night actor Mel Gibson got arrested?

Muleheaded, or Zora and Langston Write a Play

by David Robson

Synopsis

In Muleheaded, or Zora and Langston Write a Play by David Robson literary legends Zora Neale Hurston and Langston Hughes team up to write a Broadway play—but artistic dreams give way to betrayal, ego, and heartbreak. Set during the Harlem Renaissance and inspired by true events, this sharp, soulful drama explores the fragility of friendship, the weight of ambition, and what happens when the dream is deferred.

In Muleheaded, or Zora and Langston Write a Play by David Robson literary legends Zora Neale Hurston and Langston Hughes team up to write a Broadway play—but artistic dreams give way to betrayal, ego, and heartbreak. Set during the Harlem Renaissance and inspired by true events, this sharp, soulful drama explores the fragility of friendship, the weight of ambition, and what happens when the dream is deferred.

Out of Place

by David Robson

Synopsis

Robert Hassan, a Palestinian-American, returns to Bethlehem after twenty years in exile to find his childhood home converted into a medical clinic. There he encounters two young lovers, Jumana and Sami, whose passionate nationalism rekindles his own dormant patriotic feelings. When Robert discovers that Jumana has been secretly collaborating with Israeli intelligence in exchange for safe passage to Sweden, he...

Robert Hassan, a Palestinian-American, returns to Bethlehem after twenty years in exile to find his childhood home converted into a medical clinic. There he encounters two young lovers, Jumana and Sami, whose passionate nationalism rekindles his own dormant patriotic feelings. When Robert discovers that Jumana has been secretly collaborating with Israeli intelligence in exchange for safe passage to Sweden, he faces a devastating choice between his loyalty to the Palestinian cause and his conscience, while his own violent past threatens to destroy any chance of redemption.

The Passion of M.

by David Robson

Synopsis

At the funeral of her husband, the former president of the United States, Melania recalls her life before and after meeting Donald Trump. From her childhood in Communist Slovenia to her complicated and controversial stint as first lady, Melania takes us on a kaleidoscopic journey through the joy, and pain, of a life lived alongside the most powerful and dangerous man on earth.

At the funeral of her husband, the former president of the United States, Melania recalls her life before and after meeting Donald Trump. From her childhood in Communist Slovenia to her complicated and controversial stint as first lady, Melania takes us on a kaleidoscopic journey through the joy, and pain, of a life lived alongside the most powerful and dangerous man on earth.

Playing Leni (co-authored with John Stanton)

by David Robson

Synopsis

A fictionalized account of the capture and arrest of Leni Riefenstahl, filmmaker and propagandist for the Third Reich during World War II. Her captor, an unnamed Allied soldier, must transport Riefenstahl to a detention center. Riefenstahl, however, believes this “trip through the countryside” is the perfect opportunity to create her cinematic masterwork. Writing and rewriting her story as they travel...

A fictionalized account of the capture and arrest of Leni Riefenstahl, filmmaker and propagandist for the Third Reich during World War II. Her captor, an unnamed Allied soldier, must transport Riefenstahl to a detention center. Riefenstahl, however, believes this “trip through the countryside” is the perfect opportunity to create her cinematic masterwork. Writing and rewriting her story as they travel, Riefenstahl comes face to face with the inescapable truths of war, privation, and death camps. The mystery soldier becomes jailer, confessor, and actor in Riefenstahl’s unending pursuit to produce, direct, and edit each piece of her life—blurring the lines between art and reality, ambition and conscience, innocence and culpability.

Playing the Assassin

by David Robson

Synopsis

Decades ago, NFL star Frank Baker was dubbed “The Assassin” for his brutal tackles. Now, down on his luck, he’s offered the chance of a lifetime — an interview on CBS before the Super Bowl. But just when he thinks his luck has changed, Frank and his interviewer are blindsided by secrets and revelations. Inspired by a true story, this new play tackles the NFL’s thorniest issues: race, hero worship, violence and...

Decades ago, NFL star Frank Baker was dubbed “The Assassin” for his brutal tackles. Now, down on his luck, he’s offered the chance of a lifetime — an interview on CBS before the Super Bowl. But just when he thinks his luck has changed, Frank and his interviewer are blindsided by secrets and revelations. Inspired by a true story, this new play tackles the NFL’s thorniest issues: race, hero worship, violence and its repercussions.

Priceless

by David Robson

Synopsis

In a luxury hotel room in Stockholm, two former schoolmates attempt a high-stakes black-market sale of a stolen, possibly priceless painting. As they wait for an art authenticator, paranoia mounts and old resentments erupt, revealing a violent crime behind the deal. When the work is tied to Van Gogh’s death, the room becomes a psychological trap—where greed, fear, and betrayal collide, and survival may depend on...

In a luxury hotel room in Stockholm, two former schoolmates attempt a high-stakes black-market sale of a stolen, possibly priceless painting. As they wait for an art authenticator, paranoia mounts and old resentments erupt, revealing a violent crime behind the deal. When the work is tied to Van Gogh’s death, the room becomes a psychological trap—where greed, fear, and betrayal collide, and survival may depend on who walks away with the art.

The Remains

by David Robson

Synopsis

When Polish-American historian Anna Nowak and her journalist husband James relocate to a village in Poland, a German named Herr Fischer arrives to excavate Nazi war dead from their yard. What begins as an unwanted intrusion becomes something far more devastating — for her family and the foundation of her life's work — as the dig uncovers more than anyone bargained for.

When Polish-American historian Anna Nowak and her journalist husband James relocate to a village in Poland, a German named Herr Fischer arrives to excavate Nazi war dead from their yard. What begins as an unwanted intrusion becomes something far more devastating — for her family and the foundation of her life's work — as the dig uncovers more than anyone bargained for.

Russian Roulette

by David Robson

Synopsis

A cynical American spin doctor transforms a Slavic truck driver into a fake democratic presidential candidate—all part of a Russian scheme to puppet a small nation. Meanwhile, a seductive Siberian operative infiltrates the NRA to corrupt American politics from within. When both operations spiral out of control, democracy becomes the ultimate casualty. A savage political satire about the price of power and the...

A cynical American spin doctor transforms a Slavic truck driver into a fake democratic presidential candidate—all part of a Russian scheme to puppet a small nation. Meanwhile, a seductive Siberian operative infiltrates the NRA to corrupt American politics from within. When both operations spiral out of control, democracy becomes the ultimate casualty. A savage political satire about the price of power and the people willing to sell it.

Someone Else's Life

by David Robson

Synopsis

Past and present collide when a grieving daughter meets the wife of a former factory worker sickened by the toxic chemicals he worked with.

Past and present collide when a grieving daughter meets the wife of a former factory worker sickened by the toxic chemicals he worked with.

The Speech

by David Robson

Synopsis

A college student attempts to give a speech but gets off track and instead reflects on what's really important in life.

A college student attempts to give a speech but gets off track and instead reflects on what's really important in life.

The Stronger

by David Robson

Synopsis

Based on a one-act play by August Strindberg, The Stronger centers on a Christmas Eve meeting between X and Y at a small cafe. During X's tension-filled monologue, secrets are revealed, including X's belief that Y is in love with her husband, and X attempts to shame her friend and prove that she is the stronger of the two women. But is she?

Based on a one-act play by August Strindberg, The Stronger centers on a Christmas Eve meeting between X and Y at a small cafe. During X's tension-filled monologue, secrets are revealed, including X's belief that Y is in love with her husband, and X attempts to shame her friend and prove that she is the stronger of the two women. But is she?

Without Consent

by David Robson

Synopsis

A wealthy Main Line socialite interviews a prospective nurse to care for her husband, a disgraced media mogul. As the interview unfolds, both women conceal their true motives, and what begins as a cat-and-mouse game builds to shocking twists neither woman sees coming.

A wealthy Main Line socialite interviews a prospective nurse to care for her husband, a disgraced media mogul. As the interview unfolds, both women conceal their true motives, and what begins as a cat-and-mouse game builds to shocking twists neither woman sees coming.

You Rang

by David Robson

Synopsis

A groom with cold feet gets advice from an (un)expected source.

A groom with cold feet gets advice from an (un)expected source.